The Stages, Chapters, and Seasons of Adulthoodby Dennis Carpenter, Ph.D. Trust vs. Mistrust Developmental psychology often stops at the end of adolescence. An in-depth description of the developmental stages in childhood and adolescence is beyond the scope of this article. However, a number of points are worth mentioning about the development that happens early on in our lives. Early experiences are extremely important in shaping our adult lives. Erikson believed that the central challenge of the first year of life is developing a sense of "Trust vs. Mistrust" and that the critical variables involved in creating this trust are warmth and consistency of parental caregiving. Erikson's premise is that those who develop a solid foundational base of trust believe that the world is a safe place where their needs will be met and they will move through the subsequent stages easier and more optimally than those with a sense of mistrust of the world. A fair amount of research has been done that documents the positive relationships between this foundational trust and later social and cognitive development. In fact, the issue of trust in adult romantic relationships often reflects the nature of the relationship that existed between the individual and his or her primary caregiver(s) during the first year of life. While this might be true, it is also clear that some individuals rise above adversity and become stronger as a result of earlier difficult periods. In addition, life is like writing a book as the Life Story theorists suggest. In adulthood, individuals can rewrite some of these earlier chapters or at least their interpretations of them through such techniques as personal reflection or counseling. So, while the pattern has definitely been set for a certain course of development by the end of adolescence, great potential still exists in adulthood to rise above any earlier challenges and chart a different course of development. This is consistent with Erikson's views in that he maintained that certain challenges are optimally dealt with at a certain age, but can be faced later but with more effort required. Identity vs. Role Confusion Erik Erikson identified the central challenge of adolescence as the formation of "Identity vs. Role Confusion." Various theorists and researchers have described the challenges faced by adolescents as they explore different ways of being in order to arrive at a secure sense of who they are as unique individuals. Successful navigation of adolescence leads to a coherent sense of Self and ideas about what one's life journey is emerging to be all about. In contrast, the unsuccessful struggle results in confusion about one's identity and problems sorting out what one's life purpose might be. Is this struggle for identity over with at the end of adolescence? Identity is multifaceted and doesn't seem to be fully developed all at once. One of the main aspects of this identity struggle is discovering one's interests and aptitudes, and translating these into a vocation or career. This struggle continues throughout college or other education and on into those first jobs where one gets firsthand experience in the world of work. While adolescence is an ideal time to resolve basic identity issues, this process of defining Self continues throughout adulthood. Those who successfully resolve the identity struggles of adolescence are more likely to more successfully navigate the challenges of adulthood. Intimacy vs. Isolation Erikson described "Intimacy vs Isolation" as the key struggle in early adulthood. In other words, the formation of close interpersonal relationships is critical, not only with close friends but also with a committed partner(s). This usually has meant the coming together of a man and a woman with the end product being the birth of children. Today, we recognize this same intimacy in relationships between individuals of the same sex. The type of individuals involved in intimate relationships is not the important dimension, it is the quality of the relationship between the individuals that is critical. In addition, the birth of children is not the ultimate or only marker of successful relationships, as I will describe soon when discussing generativity. An interesting gender difference seems to exist with regard to the order in which identity issues and intimacy issues are resolved. Even today after several decades of progress in equal rights for women, males are more likely to focus on career development, and then focus on getting married and having children. Females are more likely to focus on getting married and having children, then on career development. In some of my college classes, I have as many as 50% returning adult students. Most of them are married or divorced females, many of them already have children, and they are now focusing on education and career after focusing on relationships and family. Early adulthood (the 20's and 30's) emerges in the time period between Beltane and Summer Solstice as adolescence wanes, and lasts through Lughnassad. The end of adolescence and the beginning of early adulthood is not necessarily clear-cut and varies considerably from individual to individual. The early Summer of life is a time of great challenges and opportunities for growth in the realms of self-realization, relationships, family, and career. As individuals struggle to form and maintain lasting relationships, they also face many challenges in the workplace and at home, including children. Life becomes for many is a complex juggling act where work or lack of it, children, changing relationships, and other factors compete for attention. Divorce and remarriage have become commonplace. A rapidly changing global economy contributes to significant job insecurity. Even in successful married couples, life satisfaction declines during the time of raising children because of the volume of competing demands, and improves once again when the children leave home. As one moves through the challenges of this time, judgment and decision making improve because individuals can now integrate thought processes with emotion based on the insight gained from life experience. Most people navigate this difficult terrain well and all to soon realize how quickly time flies by. Generativity vs. Stagnation As one moves into the 40's and 50's, the time from Lughnassad to Fall Equinox, the mid- to late Summer of life, a shift in time perception is likely to occur. Something as simple as getting that invitation for the 25th or 30th high school class reunion may start the simple math calculations in one's mind: "Gee, it's been 30 years since I graduated from high school. I can't believe the 30 years went by so fast. Everyone I have ever talked to says that time goes by faster as one gets older. If the last 30 years went by that fast and the next 30 go by even faster, wow, it will be no time at all before I am 18 + 30 + 30.oh, my gosh, I will be 78 years old before you know it." This is what happens in middle adulthood. One realizes the shortness of life and becomes aware of the limited amount of time left. This may result in a sense of urgency to accomplish as much as possible while one still can. Erikson believed that the central challenge of middle adulthood is "Generativity vs Stagnation." Those who successfully move through this period of life realize that they are making positive contributions to the world and benefiting future generations in some way. Many people obviously experience this sense of generativity in seeing their children grow up and move out into the world. Their efforts as parents have contributed to the next generation. One does not need to raise children to experience a positive sense of generativity in midlife. One can experience generativity by contributing to the world through work or volunteer activities. Erikson used the term "stagnation" to refer to those who feel stuck in what they are doing, no longer sense the meaning in their lives, and do not seek to change their "lot in life." It is hard to think of midlife without also thinking of the often mentioned crisis, in other words, the "midlife crisis." So, are we all destined for a midlife crisis? Carl Jung is the psychologist most responsible for giving us this notion of the inevitable midlife crisis. However, the research just does not bear out the universal nature of it. Some people do experience a crisis of midlife, and Erikson would suggest that those people who haven't successfully resolved the earlier stages, such as Identity vs. Role Confusion and Intimacy vs. Isolation, would be most at risk for experiencing a crisis of midlife. Instead, most people experience what is more appropriately described as a midlife correction. When one realizes the finiteness of life and evaluates life's priorities accordingly, it is understandable that these priorities, or at least the rank ordering of them, might change. This is exactly what happens in the realms of work and relationships. Those individuals who make midlife corrections are much more likely to report higher life satisfaction in later middle adulthood than those who do not. Another challenge facing many individuals in midlife is that they find themselves in the middle of the "sandwich." The "sandwich generation" is a term used to describe those individuals who are caught between the conflicting demands of their children who are struggling to gain their independence and their aging parents who are struggling to retain their independence. Females are much more likely to be overburdened by these competing demands. Time continues to march by and one moves through the 50's and into the 60's. The end of Summer is near and the signs of Fall are in the air. In the literature, middle adulthood typically ends around 60-65 years of age. For some individuals, they may look forward to their approaching retirement as a time of reaping the benefits of a life of work. Too many individuals, these days, find themselves not being able to afford retirement and instead look to the future with apprehension. Age discrimination is a big factor in our culture today. Many American companies seek to cut costs by firing older workers and hiring younger ones, or out-sourcing the work to other companies where labor is cheaper. Many employers are reluctant to hire workers in their 50's and early 60's because of misconceptions or stereotypes about them. So, in many ways, life satisfaction at this stage of life is influenced by the financial circumstances the individual confronts as well as the extent to which individuals feel like they are still making or have made a positive contribution to the world. Stereotypes about Aging What are the common stereotypes about aging and what impact do they have? The biggest stereotype about aging individuals has to do with decline, especially the decline of cognitive functioning. Cognition is the academic term referring to thought processes and includes memory. I hear many people make casual statements about forgetting something and about how that must be the first signs of Alzheimer's Disease. So what's the scoop on cognitive decline? Well, the research suggests, for the most part, that cognitive functions remain quite intact well into the 60's, and into the 70's and 80's and sometimes longer for many. Late middle adulthood is a time where optimal cognitive functioning is still expected. The one factor that has been shown to decline very gradually beginning as early as 20 years of age is cognitive and psychomotor speed. Even this doesn't decline significantly until the 60's/early 70's for most. Such small declines tend to be offset by the wisdom that grows with experience living in the world. In order to minimize any decline in cognitive functioning, two simple rules emerge from recent research: (1) use it or lose it, and (2) if you expect to decline, you will!!! Think for a moment about the seasonal metaphor of the life span. The sun peaks at Summer Solstice, the prime of early adulthood. Yet, the sun still shines brightly in the sky for some time giving us hot days well approaching Fall Equinox here in northern climate zones. Just like the lasting heat of Summer, adults maintain high levels of functioning and minimal decline as they move through late middle adulthood and approach their elder years, despite the physical changes that do happen with time. Conclusions Celebrating Elderhood is the topic of our next issue, so I will refrain from saying any more about the later stages of life, as we move through Fall to Samhain and then approach the Winter Solstice. In this article, I have given you a broad overview of some of the challenges facing adults and some of the themes of development in adulthood that have emerged in the literature. Time does go by fast, the seasons they do change quickly, and the book that is the chapters of our life becomes written all too soon. From a spiritual perspective, we can strive to make the most of each stage and experience by living it fully. We can search for the meaning behind each of life's challenges. We can also celebrate the transitions from one stage of life to another. Rites of Passage are important because they allow one to look back upon the chapter just written, reflect upon its themes, and bring closure to it in some way. Such Rites also allow one to look forward in anticipation of the chapter or stage ahead. Experiencing such Rites within a community of caring individuals lends validation to one's life experience and acknowledgment that a new stage, chapter, and season of life has truly begun and that this journey is a positive one. Many of the writers in this issue of CIRCLE Magazine further address some of the points raised in this article and reveal that adulthood is truly a time to be celebrated!
Dennis Carpenter, Ph.D.
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Some
developmental psychology theorists talk about stages of development,
while others describe the various periods of the lifespan as different
chapters in a book that is the Life Story. Some Nature Spirituality
practitioners equate the seasons of the solar year with the different
stages in life. In this article, I will discuss the stages, chapters,
or seasons of life in early to middle adult development, roughly
the ages from 20 years to 60 years. Late adult development (60 years
and older) will be the focus of our next issue on "Celebrating
Elderhood." I will focus specifically on the broad themes of
adulthood that are reflected in the adult development literature,
discuss some modern-day issues and challenges of adulthood, and
point out factors involved in successfully managing each of life's
stages. In addition, I will discuss the relationships between the
Wheel of the Year and stages of life in adulthood, most notably
the adult developmental stages described by psychologist Erik Erikson,
one of the only theorists who has described a series of stages covering
the entire lifespan. I have included a table on page 7 that outlines
the correlations between the stages of life and the Wheel of the
year, even though I only discuss those stages most directly related
to early and middle adulthood in this article.